The Impact of E-Business

An E-Business strategy allows a typical business to take advantage of Internet technology to improve communications and increase productivity. An E-Business utilizes digital media such as email, data conferencing, e-commerce, and B2B to streamline business operations. These are made possible through a network infrastructure like Local Area Networks (LANs), Wireless communication, and the Internet. Customer relationship can be improved due to fast response time and efficient business transactions. Through email, businesses can communicate with their customers instantaneously. This is important for sales, support, and marketing activities. E-commerce websites can also be utilized to sell products and perform business transactions in real-time. Customers can do their shopping online, pay electronically, and have their products delivered the next day. This reduces cost drastically because there are no more physical overheads such as shops, printed brochures and human cashiers. Collaboration with business partners is also strengthened through B2B exchanges. Using this technology, companies can partner with each other buy cheaper products placed directly from suppliers. At the same time, they can integrate and synchronize their individual business operations. One company might handle product design, while others manage procurement, shipping, and marketing. This translates directly to reduced cost and improved business efficiency. E-Business can also increase a company's internal productivity. Using Local Area Networks (LANs) and Intranet, employees can share information faster and more efficient than traditional phone or paper communication. Various services such as email, file transfer, directory services, and knowledge management systems can increase productivity and reduce manual work. Wireless networking can also allow executives to be connected anywhere and anytime, so they can manage their business more effectively. A company can transform to become an E-Business by adopting Internet technology along with certain business considerations and decisions. The main strategy should be aligned with the main goal to reduce cost and increase the company's productivity. The importance of the transition should always be highlighted, emphasizing these two benefits. The reason for this is because most people are resistant to change, especially those related to technology. They view these as a threat to their jobs, to the status quo, and to internal politics. Studies will have to be made that will show the return on investment (ROI) and how it will improve the business as a whole. A transition plan should also be made so that the adoption of the technology would be much easier and not drastic. User education and training is also an important aspect because it helps people understand the benefits they can get from the E-Business. Considerable investments will also have to be made in IT consulting, hardware, and software. IT companies and consultants will be hired for the the initial setup of the system, and training for the users who will comprise the IT department. This department would then have the expertise to continue the transition and implement technology-related changes. Computer hardware such as personal computers and network cables will be purchased and changes in the office layout will be implemented. New guidelines and protocols should be also created in order to maintain system integrity and security. The company will be exposed to new threats such as unauthorized access, viruses, worms, hackers, and spam. Because of this, security procedures such as Intrusion Detection and Disaster Recovery should be implemented. Computer and network policies should also be in place so that these risks will be minimized.

Establishment of responsibility Essay

While at the counter, the customer can see other employees making the pizzas and the large ovens in which the pizzas are baked Instructions: Identify the six principles of internal control and give an example of each principle that you might observe when picking up your pizza. Note: It may not be possible to observe all the principles. ) 1st Principle – Establishment of responsibility * Only one person is responsible for a given task. * For example, the cashier that exchanges the pizza for cash would be the principle of establishment of responsibility. 2nd Principle – Segregation of duties. Accounting employees balances books * Another personnel has custody of cash on hand (making deposits) * In this principle- segregation of duties one cannot observe this principle in this scenario. th Principle – Documentation procedures * Pre-number documents or invoices * For example, the cashier has pre-number receipts for each order that is picked up by the customer. At the end of the clerk’s shift these invoices are forwarded to accounting to timely record each transaction. 5th Principle – Physical mechanical and electronic controls * Consist of having safes, deposit boxes, and time clocks for time worked. * The clerk has a cashier that controls and safeguards the assets to enhance the accuracy and reliability of the accounting records. th Principle – Independent internal verification * Employees review, compare, and reconcile data that was prepared by them. Three measure are recommended: * An example cannot be provided for this principle because a customer cannot identify if: * 1st – Org. should verify records periodically or on a surprise basis. * 2nd – A manager should make the verification of an employee * 3rd – Discrepancies and exceptions should be reported to mgt. to make appropriate corrective action. Chapter 7: Problem Set B: P7-2B The board of trustees of a local church is concerned about the internal accounting controls pertaining to the offering collections made at weekly services. They ask you to serve on a three-person audit team with the internal auditor of the university and a CPA who has just joined the church. At a meeting of the audit team and the board of trustees you learn the following: A) Indicate the weaknesses in internal accounting control in the handling of collections. There are a few weaknesses in internal control in the handling of collections for the church, such as there is no supervision when the ushers take money. There is a chance that the ushers can take money from the collection plate. In addition, the financial secretary manages three tasks like bank reconciliation, has control and has custody of the cash, and maintains the church records. Moreover, the financial secretary holds out cash ($150-$200) per week; different withhold amounts for cash expenditures. There is not a witness when the head usher or the financial secretary count the money. Last, checks are made payable to cash (Kimmel, Weygandt & Kieso, 2007). B) List the improvements in internal control procedures that you plan to make at the next meeting of the audit team for: Ushers: How churches handle usher operations varies from congregation to congregation, but a consistent set of controls protects the fiduciary integrity of the church, and creates confidence among donors. One problem in the collection process is that only the head usher counts the collection without any accountability to ensure his count is accurate, or that all of the funds donated are transferred to the safe. This can be resolved by having the other ushers count the donations and sign off on the report, so that more than one set of eyes have verified the donations. Additionally, volunteers will need to take a course familiarizing would-be ushers with standard operating procedures, and reporting standards before being qualified to volunteer for usher position. This will help solidify controls for the ushers. Head Usher: While the church may not be currently experiencing anything wrong with the usher selection and volunteer system at the church, some improvements might be considered. The church might consider making the head usher a year-long term, elected by church members to create continuity, but also impose term limits – possibly every 3-4 years a head usher must take a sabbatical. Additionally, because the head usher role is so pivotal in the collection process, and it is a place where mistakes or malfeasance can easily take place; it would be helpful for the ushers and the financial secretary to be present in the collection counts, the day of, so someone outside the usher department can verify tithe counts. Financial Secretary: The most glaring issue, which opens up easy access for, would be embezzlers in the congregations check policy. All checks being written to cash basically enables anyone to cash out the check, the church, a rouge employee or volunteer, or otherwise. All checks need to be made out to the church, not to cash. It would be even better if the church went the route of many churches by allowing donors to have donations processed monthly (or weekly depending on donor preference) through e-commerce, allowing debit or credit payments to be made automatically to the church account. This will add a layer to the recording process, but it also increases security for donors. The financial secretary also needs to stop pulling cash from weekly donations for cash expenditures as cash transactions are harder to track and thus are more easily abused. Instead a petty cash account needs to be started, and cash allocated as needed based on historical records of cash expenditures. Additionally, a church credit/debit card, or reimbursement policy greatly will diminish the need for high levels of cash in the petty cash account. Finance Committee: The first thing the finance committee needs to do is to follow its own policy, and conduct annual audits. The church’s 501 (C)(3) nonprofit designation demands this. Often the most â€Å"trusted† employees are the ones who are found to have committed improprieties. Regardless of trust, regular audits, and reporting is essential. The second major priority is for the financial committee to purchase a fidelity insurance policy that will protect the church in the case of financial impropriety or massive fraud on part of those who handle finances. In addition to the need for an overhaul in policy (discussed below), the financial committee needs to inculcate a culture of financial vigilance and rigor to keep the church from even the perception of financial impropriety. C) What church policies should be changed to improve internal control? The church board of trustees is responsible of make sure that the church runs smoothly, from assigning the right ministers to the right ministries and making sure that the tithes and offerings are accounted for after each service. The first and most important thing that the church needs to do is getting some fidelity insurance. This type of insurance will protect the church of losses that may result of fraudulent acts by specified individuals. Protecting the church of any dishonest employee or member who may steal money, securities, and other property that once belong to the church. The second thing is to have an audit conducted because there has not been an audit performed in 15 years. Highly recommend using an outside source of performing the audit, this way every rock and stone will be turn over. The church financial management department should be responsible for counting and recordkeeping of the tithes and offering received but in separate offices, one office for counting the money and the other office for recordkeeping purposes The head usher responsibility should be making sure that the tithes and offering plates are accounted for and immediately delivering the plates (with one member from the board of trustee) to the financial management office (the financial office manager, and one individual from the board of trustees are the only ones with keys to both offices). The financial management recordkeeping personnel and the financial secretary should first come to an agreement on how much cash is needed for the week expense. Also the two will count the money with the intention to be deposit along with a deposit slip; the financial secretary will be responsible of making the deposit and afterward returning the deposit receipt to the recordkeeping office for recording purposes.

History of the Great Wall of China

Introduction I foremost went to China last twelvemonth to analyze for a semester.The feeling I had when I arrived at that place, was something that can non be explained in words.I felt frightened because I was so little in such a large city.Day by twenty-four hours, I started to experience much more comfy, to go more familiar with the topographic points, the people and even with Chinese food.Back so, I did non recognize what this experience would intend to me. After analyzing a semester in a metropolis near Shanghai, I decided to travel to see Beijing, the great capital of China. There, I had the chance to see the Great Wall and I was impressed by its enormousness, hence my ground for taking this subject for my concluding paper. Known as the â€Å"7th admiration of the universeâ€Å" , the Great Wall, which stretches for over Chinese district of more than 7000 kilometres, is the largest edifice of the ancient military defence and it took longer to construct. This colossal wall began to lift in the ninth century. The people who dominated the cardinal fields, for illustration, the center and lower basin of the Yellow River, decided to support themselves from the onslaughts of the northern small town with a wall that joined the walls, the beacons and palaces located along the boundary line and from which they could watch the motions of the enemy. In the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States, between 700 and 221 BC, the feudal Godheads lived locked in eternal wars to accomplish hegemony. The most powerful Godheads defended each other with walls that rose landforms advantage of boundary line countries. After 221 BC, when Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty unified China, the bing walls were linked. The formidable defensive barrier therefore formed, traversing the mountains of the northern boundary line, served to drive the onslaughts of the mobile cultural groups mounted on horseback, from the Mongolian steppes. At that clip, the length of the Great Wall was good over 5000 stat mis. The Han Dynasty, replacement to the Qin, was lengthened to more than 10 1000 kilometres. Over the following 2000 old ages, the entire length of the different subdivisions of the Great Wall reached more than 50 1000 kilometres, plenty to circle the Earth length. Today when we talk about the Great Wall, we frequently refer to the constructed during the Ming Dynasty ( 1368-1644 ) .It starts at the Jiayu Pass in western Gansu Province, through 9 states, municipalities and independent parts, and ends on the Bankss of Yalu River in the northeasterly state of Liaoning. Its length is 7,300 kilometres, or 14 thousand Li, hence besides known as the Great Wall of 10,000 Li. The wall, built with immense bricks, masonry, crushed rock and loess, has a tallness of about 10 metres. The breadth of the top between 4 and 5 metres, leting the coincident measure 4 equestrians and therefore facilitated the motion of combat units such as the conveyance of grain and arms. Inside the walls were stepss and corridors taking to the doors. The wall was punctuated by towers that were used to hive away arms and cereal for the remainder of the soldiers and as a safety in clip of war. It is besides used as beacons to warn of the presence of enemy fire or fume signals. Of class, today the Great Wall no longer meets any military map. But its arresting architecture has won and continues to win the bosom of many people. The beauty of the Great Wall is manifested in its stateliness, its strength, its illustriousness and its naturalness. Seen from a distance, the high wall extends along the ridges of mountain ranges clearly following the silhouette of a elephantine winging firedrake, shut up position, the powerful entreaty of your fabulous study, formed by enforcing stairss, walls that appear to travel in sensed zigzag and steep ups and platforms.In one word, a comeliness. To the historical and cultural value of the Great Wall we can add besides the touristry value. The Chinese frequently say: â€Å"He who has non climbed the Great Wall is non a existent individual. † Tourists, whether Chinese or aliens, are proud to hold gone to the Great Wall. The many caputs of province and authorities who have visited China are no exclusion. Several well-preserved subdivisions have become points of tourer involvement, which every twelvemonth attracts 1000s of visitants. Among the best known include Badaling Pass, Platform Shimatai, Mutianyu, Shanhaiguan Pass, besides known as First Measure of China, and Jiayuguan Pass, the western terminal of the Great Wall. The Great Wall of China is an internationally recognizable icon and is a permeant metaphor used to specify modern China’s national character, political attitude. Is a set of monumental semisynthetic constructions that has stood the trial of clip, much like the centuries’ old Chinese civilization. It has besides come to incarnate the rich history of the Chinese people, declarative mood of their strength and ability as a state. This Wall has come to stand for quintessential Chinese attributes in modern-day society and it is cardinal to how China defines itself. However, there is no individual ‘Great Wall’ . It is a set of walls, as I said before, built periodically over 1000s of old ages by different dynasties for changing intents. The Great Wall, crystallisation of wisdom, difficult work, blood and perspiration of 1000000s of workers in ancient China, has worthily survived over a thousand old ages of vicissitudes. Her ageless Martial and timeless entreaty have become a symbol of the spirit of the Chinese state. Since 1987, the Great Wall is considered a universe heritage. Chapter one The history of The Great Wall Year of building The history of the Great Wall began in 221 BC during the Qin dynasty when were foremost built 5,000 stat mis in two phases from four to six old ages ( 214-210 B.C ) . During the 2nd phase, the wall was built along the Yellow and the Tao River, at the same time being built 44 metropoliss and established 44 administrative units.The population brought in these metropoliss had provided the care and the enlargement of the wall.During the Han Dynasty, its length reached 10,000 kilometers.Only few subdivisions of the impressive building of Han Dynasty had been kept until today.The new subdivision of the Great Wall dates from the Ming Dynasty, and in 270 old ages, the emperors opened 50 topographic points in which people had the chance to work.The wall, during the Ming Dynasty, crossed nine states and independent parts by mensurating 8851.8 kilometer and holding the best proficient and military qualities. From the full length over 6,000 stat mis were built by Ming emperor’s people. Types of wall building To construct, , the 7th admiration of the world’’ , the Chinese have used five types of wall building. The first 1 was rammed Earth, an old building technique, used in the loess tableland from Datong to Jiayuguan and in Inner Mongolia. In kernel, the rammed Earth was prevailing.Other types used were adobe, rock, brick and drop. It is said that a fifth of China ‘s population at some point participated in its building. It is besides said that the Great Wall of China is the largest graveyard in the universe, because during its building more than 10 million workers died and were buried at that place. If were taken all the bricks that were used to construct the Great Wall of China during the Ming Dynasty, the Chinese could construct a high wall that can give five bends to Earth. The chief trouble was that, to accomplish a strategic advantage, they had to took advantage of the terrain ( bring forthing accidents ) , and in the tops of the mountains were localized munitions that could keep a good surveillance of the land, and at that place was where soldiers lived and where they had commissariats and armaments. The stuffs they used were different and depended on what could be used in each country they built. The Qin and Han was built chiefly with dirt, clay, reeds, wood and rocks. The Ming, 15 centuries subsequently, used clay bricks and carven rocks. In some subdivisions of the Wall, to attest the quality of the bricks, each maker imprinted his seal on them, and the day of the month of bringing. Rock pavers were cut and shipped from distant preies, some of them came to weigh a ton and were up to 3 metres. The Ming built in two phases: foremost raised two walls and so the infinite between them was filled. The base was wider than the top. Then were built garrisons and crenelations where guns were placed. To forestall eroding by rain, a whole drainage system was devised. The boring work, the hapless diet, the whether, and the enemies that continually kept coming, affected the workers. It is estimated that Ming took advantage of 100 workers. The nomads attacked and broke the defences in many parts of the Wall, but he had already fulfilled the undertaking of directing the dismay to the topographic point where the ground forces was placed. They had a system of fume signals in detailing the onslaught and how many enemies were destroyed. Later, the Ming, in add-on to smoke signals, had used a codification for guns to give the dismay. The wall has a tallness between seven and 10 metres. Its base steps about seven metres and six upper manus. The floors were paved utilizing a mixture of rock and howitzer, supported by tree short pantss rollers arranged in several beds. At regular intervals terraced towers were built and this thing allowed the guards made aˆâ€ ¹aˆâ€ ¹ optical signals which offered them a great communicating that stretched for stat mis. A wall is interrupted at some points so they can hold defence points, to which the soldiers could withdraw if necessary. Each tower has alone and hard stepss to entree in order to confound the enemy. The barracks and administrative centres were located at greater distances. In add-on to its defensive map, the Great Wall played an instrumental function as a mean of communicating and commercialism opening the doors of China to the Western universe.The celebrated â€Å" Silk Road â€Å" passed trough China, and merchandisers from the Persian Gulf and the Eastern Mediterranean who traveled to the E could non make their finishs without traveling through the wall. The stuffs used are those available around the edifice. Near Beijing was used limestone and was besides used granite or fired brick.That made the wall really immune to impacts of siege arms. Defense The Great Wall is non merely a wall, but a defense mechanism system that integrated assorted walls, watchtowers and towers of fire for describing under the control of military degrees defined. For illustration, under the Ming, there were nine subdivisions of different military duties that are described as, ,Nine critical defense mechanisms in the borders’’ . It was assigned a commanding officer, describing straight to the National Ministry of Defence. About one million military personnels were deployed along the Great Wall to continue the state. During 2,000 old ages of building of the wall, the Chinese people learned a batch about defense mechanisms ( harmonisation with the topography and location of military forces, edifice stuffs, etc. ) The format of the walls varied depending on the topography and defense mechanism demands. In the strategic transitions, the walls were really high and solid, although they were low and narrow in high and steep mountains to cut down t he costs in money and labour. In some topographic points like Juyongguan or the Badaling subdivision, general regulation, the walls have seven to eight metres in tallness, four to five metres thick at the top and six to seven meters down. Inside the upper portion, there is a parapet of a meter barrier which prevented the soldiers fall, niches two meters high, every bit good as holes for pull or throw stones. In the strategic subdivisions, the upper portion is blocked by a series of cross walls to forestall the enemy to mount. During the dynasty of the Ming, General Qi Jiguang, celebrated for get the better ofing Nipponese plagiarists, improved the defence of the wall system, by adding towers, watchtower and the warehouses for arms and weaponry. Base on ballss are defensive strategic points throughout the wall.Fire coverage towers constituted one of the indispensable constituents of the defence system and an effectual agencies of conveying military information. During the Ming, sound s of detonation were added to heighten the consequence. As a defense mechanism system, the Great Wall crosses mountains, comeuppances and prairies, drops and rivers and harmonizes its construction to the complexness of the topography. It is a wonder of ancient architecture. The wall remained standing, so, for a long clip. Under the great Han dynasty became a great topographic point for the conflicts against the Huns, China utilizing projectiles countless ground forcess. During the following dynasty, the Chinese generals seized the immense wall as a base from which to come on in Hun Mongol heartland in Central Asia. That was the great migration of Germanic peoples. The building whose being had produced such effects spread over continents, merely partly protected China, and from its diminution in the 13th century was less protected. When in 1368 succumbed the Mongol dynasty in China under force per unit area from the Chinese reserves and riders steppe retreated to Central Asia, one of the first tasks the new Ming dynasty ( 1348-1644 ) aimed strictly Chinese, was the Reconstruction of the enforcing wall.

Hong Kong Conflict of Laws Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Hong Kong Conflict of Laws - Term Paper Example This principle was also applied by Bingham J in the case of The Iran Vojdan, where a clause for dispute settlement provided for (a) Iranian law in Iran (b) German law in Hamburg and (c) English law in London. But applying the principle of the closest and most real connection, Lord Bingham held that the proper law to apply would be German law with the proper jurisdiction being the English Courts. Various factors are taken into consideration by the Courts in arriving at a determination of the proper law on the basis of the closest and most real connection, including the place of contracting, the place where the contractual obligations were performed and the principal places of business of the parties4. The application of the closest and most real principle is found under Hong Kong’s choice of law rules with respect to contractual obligations and has also been recommended as a guiding principle when courts experience characterization problems. This principle has also been applied in non-contractual issues, for instance in matters involving capacity, matrimonial issues, including divorce and division of matrimonial assets, trusts and property cases5. One example, is the case of Hayim v Citibank6 which was an appeal from Hong Kong involving issues of trust with Plaintiff’s will having been made in Hong Kong. But the matter was decided under English law, which was held to satisfy the closest and most real principle because no evidence was led as to Hong Kong or American law. There is provision for application of this principle in the law of mainland China as well, under Article 126 of contract law provisions, which states; â€Å"Where parties to the foreign related contract failed to select the applicable law, the contract shall be governed by the law of the country with the closest connection thereto†7. When no

Possible Selves Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Possible Selves - Assignment Example Kail and Cavanaugh (2013) elaborate that possible selves constitute powerful motivator for people to struggle towards achieving their dreams and live satisfying life. Reflective judgment theory explores and details ways in which people base their reasoning through real life dilemmas that concern and revolve around religion, personal relationships and science among others (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013). According to reflective judgment theory, there are seven stages of judgment. The seven stages are in three groups, namely prereflective thought that covers stages 1 to 3, quasi-reflective reasoning that covers stages 4-5 and reflective reasoning that covers stages 6 and 7. According to Kail and Cavanaugh (2013), prereflective thought of the reflective judgment theory that covers stages 1 to 3 makes people regard knowledge as something gained through the word(s) of a higher authority or firsthand observation rather than through evaluative and analytical reasoning of evidences. People exhibiting this element believe that their knowledge about life issues is absolutely correct and certain. Students in high school or colleges tend to apply prereflective thought in the process of learning. Since they do not want to challenge the knowledge of perceived intelligent and correct lecturers and teachers, they simply believe and trust instructions and lectures with little intent to seek further evidence. Teacher or lecturer is usually a person of higher authority and knowledge and cannot give false instructions or concepts to the students (Zytowski & D’Achiardi-Ressler, 2011). Believing instructions as given is usually a show of obedience, respect and disc ipline, which constitute elements of the so-called â€Å"good students†. In addition, prereflective thought of reflective judgment enable students to read, believe and grasp research findings documented in books

Economic of race and gender Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Economic of race and gender - Assignment Example These films could be brutal but sometimes, reality is worst than we would like it to be. The stories are just examples of what really happens in this world, whites discriminating Blacks or Asians and men acting like gods over women. What could be alarming is to know that there are also other skin colors discriminating the whites and more shockingly, women discriminating men. The films may have not shown the latter but in reality, things happen and it is not a news to break because there have been news of domestic violence also where the men are the victims. It is sad to realize that we can not escape these realities and they could happen to any of us. It is then very helpful to be educated about the issues on race and gender discrimination. Taking this class has opened my eyes and my understanding of the existence of such acts, now I know the rights of a person one needs to fight for, as well as what way of thinking one should have so as not to involve ones self in such actions. I believe that if I consider not discriminating, there would be one less racist in this world and no matter how minute its effect could be; still I could impact the world I am moving in. Diverse social positions can lay the foundations of a person’s political and economic access. For instance, a poor person can be deprived of education in his early years because he has to work in order to survive. Eventually, he will have minimal probabilities of ever going to school to get a better job in the future. Politically, he would have limited access to the rights of a regular paying worker if he ends up with menial jobs which do not give him the benefits of government employed workers. Loss of job pushes a person to self-employment particularly getting in to business because it gives advantages like being the boss of oneself, the opportunity for success and the convenience

Good Communications in architectural practice and management Essay

Good Communications in architectural practice and management - Essay Example So what is an architect Dispensing with the usual academic recourse to etymology, an architect is simply "someone qualified to design buildings and supervise their construction." (Collins, 1991). Adding dryness and formality to this raw definition, we can further say that: "An architect produces detailed workings and drawings so that buildings are designed effectively, manages the building project according to tight specifications, negotiates and coordinates with other professionals involved in the project, prepares planning applications, ensures that damages to the landscape and environment are limited, and appraises and consents listed buildings and conservation areas according to the needs of the client" (Hobsons, 2006). To put it simply, an architect is a planner, draughtsman, technical designer, a building supervisor, contracts negotiator, bureaucrat, manager, environmentalist, and conservationist all in one. But even then, considering the number of roles that an architect needs to fulfil to high standards, there is one trait that runs through all these and that determines whether the architect will forever be dabbling in mediocrity and penury or living decently and in comfort whilst being good, or be a successful virtuoso with pen, manual or digital, designing buildings at the cutting edge of genius. That singular trait is the ability to communicate. Yes, a good to great architect must be a good communicator, for the simple reason that architecture is a form of communication, and how the architect handles this important component of the job determines to a large extent how successful the practice would be. Why do we say that architecture is communication And what do we communicate Our answers to these questions lead us to the creative answers to our first two questions. What is Communication Architecture as Communication Communication is the process of transmitting information from an individual or group to another (McCloskey, 1993). Ants do it; even the birds and the bees do it. Any creature with information finds the need to communicate it to another, and this is how things get moving in our world. The whole animal kingdom (let's not go into genetics, please) depends on communication for their existence, growth, and survival; great civilizations have come and gone because of it. So important is communications to life that a successful architectural career depends on it. The architectural profession lives and thrives on communication, because architecture in itself is an expression of ideas, a manner of transmitting information, using a combination of technical and artistic languages, a mode where the message and the medium blend into one material structure that often lives long after clients, architects, and builders have gone. An architect is not merely a designer of buildings but an interpreter of dreams, a professional artist who in a design captures visions both simple and complex. Architects are masters of technology, and by their work they transform our imaginations, making them visible for the whole world to see, admire, live in, and use. Like messages trapped in the mind that goad listeners to action, architecture traps minds and allow

Comparison of Two Organisation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Comparison of Two Organisation - Essay Example The best fit organisational structure depends on many factors such as organisational goals, industry structure, and number of employees, employee maturity, type of product and service, customer expectations, geographical scope and so on. However, in order to understand the organisational structures and designs of Biogenta plc and Outback Inc., two generic forms of organisational structures and designs would be sufficient. There are mechanistic and organic organisational structures. Biogenta represents the latter whereas Outback is just the right example of the former (Cameron and Quinn, 2011, pp. 52-53). Mechanistic organisations have a rigid and tightly controlled structure. Mechanistic structures are characterised with a high degree of specialisation, inflexible departmentalisation, and narrow span of control, a significantly high degree of formalisation, centralisation and strong and unchallengeable chain of command. Mechanistic organisations such as Outback Inc. tend to rely on p rudent rules and regulations to control the behaviour of all the members (Cameron and Quinn, 2011, pp. 52-53). As mentioned earlier that mechanistic structures are not â€Å"appalling† or â€Å"unfit† within themselves. In fact, organisations which are operating within stable, calculated and predictable environment should go for mechanistic organisational structures since it helps them to maximise their control. Many governmental organisations and large corporations, especially until a few decades back, show characteristics of mechanistic structures. When the political, social, legal, environmental, economic, cultural and technological forces along with the industry’s competitive... This essay stresses that Outback Inc should move towards a more organic organisational structure by decentralising, widening the span of control, cutting down the hierarchical levels, reducing the impact of departments, creating more and more cross functional and hierarchical teams and decreasing formalisation. †¢ Outback should also create mechanisms to gradually and steadily change its organisational culture from a power culture to a more democratic and constructive culture where employees feel more empowered to share their ideas and thoughts. Outback could learn from the experience and strategies of Biogenta in terms of creating cross departmental and cross hierarchical teams since the same would bring employees together and foster communication. All work and no play have been making the employees of Outback dull and lethargic. The company should create mechanisms to produce adventure for its employees as well as it does for its customers. This report makes a conclusion that Biogenta knows how to use the variables and dynamics of organisational behaviour in its own favour and maximise the productivity of the organisation. On the other hand, Outback has been very slow in responding to the signals and alarms and time has come that it should initiate some major changes. Following are a few recommendations in this regard. The paper provides some recommendations based on the analysis and discussion.

English Language Learners Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

English Language Learners - Essay Example The paper analyzes that primary language teaching helps both teachers and students. It helps teachers and students properly communicate with each other. Students can ask questions to their teachers in their native languages, which is not easy if the communication language is other than their native languages. Moreover, students can also share their ideas more effectively with their teachers. Teachers are able to transfer knowledge to their students easily. It is also easy for the students to understand the concepts in their native languages because of their familiarity with those languages. Today, most of the companies prefer to hire such individuals who are proficient in speaking the English language. Those students, who have less understanding of English, are unable to get high paying jobs. Thus, the number of job opportunities decrease for such students, which is a major disadvantage of being less proficient in speaking English. Today, a major portion of the working class from the underdeveloped countries is working in the developed countries, such as America, England, and Canada. In all of these countries, English is the language, which people use in every social, political, and professional matter. Those people, who go from other countries to these countries for any purpose, need to have a good understanding of the English language in order to be successful. Therefore, we can say that English should be the global language because of its present and predicted widespread use in every part of the world.

Workplace Law Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Workplace Law - Assignment Example Independent contractors have no minimum wage and must submit an invoice for work completed before a company honors payment. Jim had a minimum wage that Lou paid him on a daily basis. He did not submit any form of the invoice before payment, proof that indeed Jim was Lou's employee.According to the Minister of Social Security vs. Market Investigations Limited (1969) 2 QB 173 a taxpayer is an employee. An employee earns a salary as a reward for his or her labor in terms of services delivery. From the case study, Jim was to pay his taxes, a proof that indeed he was Lou's employee. Jim worked for eight a hours as the week like the other employees and casual workers in Australia. The compliance to working eight hours a week without the day off proves that Jim was an employee to Lou.Jim, therefore, regards as Lou's employee despite the terms written in their agreement terms indicating that he approved working as an independent contractor. Lou has an obligation to ensure a safe and conduciv e working environment for Jim who is his employee. The legal case presented and the provisions of the Acts cited to prove that Jim was an employee to Lou.Second IssueLou as the employer has an obligation to follow contractually the Employee Handbook procedure in relation to the bullying complaint comprehensively. Australian Federal law on anti bullying covers all employees, interns, independents contractors and every kind of worker offering their services to an organization under an employer.

Analytical essay - Homage a rameau Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Analytical - Homage a rameau - Essay Example r Jean-Philippe Rameau does not copy Rameau, but creates a textural analysis of his work, paying homage to his history, his life, his theories, and his compositional style. Jean-Philippe Rameau was a composer during the Baroque period whose music was marked by a technicality that expressed his desire to reflect music theory in his work. His work, â€Å"Hippolyte et Aricieâ€Å", was considered one of the best operas in the form of the tragedie en musique since the death of Jean-Baptiste Lully. Rameau desired to create new styles within new forms. â€Å"His harmonies were said to be more novel, his rhythms more skillful, his orchestrations more brilliant than Lully’s† (Arvey 101). Rameau In creating his work, Rameau also sought to develop the artistic side of the compositions. He said that â€Å"I try to conceal art by that same art†(Arvey 101). In creating his theory that harmony was derived from a natural sense of sound, he was reaching into the philosophical realm and extracting a way of thinking about music that was elevated above the pragmatism of the mathematical equations of harmony. He wrote with an â€Å"impressionistic palate† (Girdlestone 571) that was dramatic and emotional, however because of his time period, he was unable to break through the binding forms that Client’s diminished the brilliance of his construction. The way in which Rameau devised is theory allowed for the concept of the chord to be defined by the nature of the harmonic development. â€Å"Rameau brought theory into line with practice: realizing that the days of melody were over and much of the expressive power even of counterpoint was due to significant clashes of sound, he began his investigations with the chord given by the vibrating stringâ€Å" and in searching for the place to find that sound, he searched â€Å"in the sound of which can be detected the upper octave, the twelfth, the second octave, the major seventeenth, and higher harmonics† (Girdlestone 519-520). The way in

Mintzberg and Management Essay Example for Free

Mintzberg and Management Essay Throughout the 20th century a strong focus was placed on the principles behind management with Henri Fayols 1916 publication Administration Industrielle et Gà ©nà ©rale being one of the first books aimed solely at deciphering and understanding the intricate concepts of management. In his book Fayol presents his classical model of management from the perspective on an executive. Fayol lists and discusses fourteen principles of management which, although non-exhaustive, provides a guide on the execution of what he proposed to be the five elemental processes of management. These five primary processes consisted of planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling which advocated Fayols support of a dynamic system of management. In response to changing contexts, other new theories have been placed forward by other distinguished academia such as Henry Mintzberg (1973), John Kotter (1982) and C.P. Hales (1986) which offer more concurrent perspectives on the concept of management. Born in 1841 Henri Fayol had, after a three decade career as a mining practitioner, committed himself to the promotion of his theories on administration in 1916 through the publication of his book Administration Industrielle et Gà ©nà ©rale up until his death in 1925. Contextually influenced by the bourgeois environment of a post revolutionized France, Fayol advocated the notion of a flexible system of management which could be applied to more than just one setting. In his book, Fayol devotes more time and focuses on the five processes of management in contrast to the fourteen management principles as claimed by (Fells, M.J., 2000, p. 358). The first element, planning, is defined â€Å"both to assess the future and make provision for it† (Fayol, 1949, p.43). He goes on to describe that this dynamic plan must take into account a list of factors such as resources, work-in-progress, and future trends. Organizing considers the functional components of organizations along with the personnel and discusses the ideal conditions required of them. Commanding considers the responsibility that falls on every manager. The goal of managers is to achieve maximum contribution from personnel towards the welfare of the company through a number of factors. An example of these factors would be elimination of the unproductive, having a thorough knowledge of personnel and their respective binding agreements and an aim to be a role model. The third element of  management is coordinating which is defined as the harmonisation of resources in their optimum proportions in order to achieve results (Fayol, 1949, p. 103). The indicators of a well coordinated organization include efficient departments which harmonize well with the rest, are well informed of their responsibilities and also work to constantly adjusted schedules based on circumstantial demands. The last element, control, focuses on the timely verification of plan implementations. This element is applicable to all the other processes and its sole purpose is to identify any complications, amend any issues and prevent future recurrences. Due to their flexibility in implementation, the correlation between the introduction of Fayols model and the sharp rise in US productivity levels as well as living standards supports his approach to management (Fells, M.J., 2000, p. 348). Fayols approach is supported by another academic source (Hales, 1989, p. 12) which claims that â€Å"Fayol grasped the essence of management† through his classical formulation of the management functions. In 1973, Henry Mintzberg provided a new conceptualization about the roles of managers through his book The Nature of Managerial Work. Through his composition Mintzberg proposed and argued that the previously accepted role of managers which adhered to a systematic approach of planning, organizing, coordinating, leading and controlling were in fact false as through his diary analysis, Mintzberg was able to demonstrate that â€Å"the manager is not a planner in a reflective sense, and no amount of admonition in the literature will make him so. His milieu is stimulus-response.† (Mintzberg, 1973, p. 182). By performing an unstructured observation and interview procedure over a two week period, Mintzberg concluded the activities of his study managers could be categorized into three sets of behaviors or roles. He conceptualized these clusters of roles as: interpersonal, informational and decisions (Pearson et al, 2003, p. 696). Mintzberg also recognizes that all managers at some time exercise each of these rules but also that different levels of managers will give different priorities to them (Mumford, 1988, p. 3). In terms of contemporary management, Fayol and Mintzberg have contributed greatly to the understanding regarding the concept of management. However  both authors are not exempt from criticisms regarding their approaches. Fayols approach is widely considered to be too theoretical whilst Mintzbergs approach has been criticized for not being theoretical enough. Despite their differences in approach, fundamentally the two theories not only share the same elements under the guise of differently labelled terms, they compliment each other in terms of validity due to the strong correlation between results regarding the behaviour of managerial positions. (Fells, M.J., 2000, p. 359) supports this judgement as the journalist goes on to state that not only are Fayols principles still relevant, they are interrelated at an elemental level with the model of Mintzberg. (Lamond, 2004, p. 350) reinforces this argument through study conducted on a large sample of male and female managers of different ages and at different managerial levels. Not only did the survey confirm that there were indeed a central set of manager functions, as placed forward by Fayol, there were also a generic set of managerial behaviours as proposed by Mintzberg. In concluding despite their contextual differences, Henri Fayols Administration Industrielle et Gà ©nà ©rale and Henry Mintzbergs The Nature of Managerial Work fundamentally share the same innate elements. This is supported by the results which derived from studies conducted by academic sources such as (Lamond, 2004) as well as the research by other academic sources (Fells, M.J. 2000), (Pearson et al, 2003), (Hales, 1989) and (Mumford, 1988). Subsequently both approaches are considered valid and have without a doubt contributed greatly to contemporary management theory. Bibliography Fells, M.J. 2000 â€Å"Fayol stands the test of time.† Journal of Management History, vol 6, no.8, 345-360 Lamond, D. 2004, â€Å"A matter of style: reconciling Henri and Henry.† Management Decision, vol. 42, no.2 p. 330-356 Pearson, C.A.L. And Chatterjee, S.R. 2003, â€Å"Managerial work roles in Asia. An empirical study of Mintzbergs role formulation in four Asian countries.† Journal of Management Development, vol. 22, no. 8 p. 694-707 Hales, C. 1989, â€Å"Management Processes, Management Divisions of Labour and Managerial Work: Towards a Synthesis.† International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, vol. 9, no. 5/6, p. 9-38 Mumford, A. 1988, â€Å"What Managers Really Do† Management Decision, vol. 26, no. 5, p. 28-30

Applications of Genomics in Cancer

Applications of Genomics in Cancer IN WHICH AREA OF HEALTH CARE CAN GENOMICS MAKE THE BIGGEST IMPACT, AND WHAT SCIENTIFIC ADVANCES ARE NEEDED TO MAKE THIS HAPPEN? Hozaifa S. Hassan Cancer management is one of the hottest areas in modern healthcare, especially with its increasing burden in both developing and developed countries. Genomics has changed the landscape of cancer management. This review highlights the current knowledge and concepts concerning how genomics with the advent of new technologies has revolutionised cancer management. Although we still have a long way to go till achieving full cure of cancer, the rapid development of cancer research carries fruitful promises for the near future. Keywords: Cancer, genomics, microRNA, immunotherapy The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recently declared that global cancer burden rises to 14.1 million new cancer cases and 8.2 million cancer-related deaths occurred in  2012, compared with 12.7 million and 7.6 million,  respectively, in 2008, with prediction of a substantive increase to 19.3 million new cancer cases per year by  2025. Prevalence estimates for 2012, show that there  were 32.6 million people alive over the age of 15 years had a cancer diagnosed in the past five years. 1 This sets off the alarm bells, we have to develop more effective tools to face this current situation. Genome sequencing and the oncogenic landscape: Cancer is driven by various genomic alterations. The emergence of the draft human genome sequence in 2000 empowered the study of cancer genomes in many ways. With the arrival of the next generation sequencing (NGS) the tumour biology research has further revolutionized.2 With comprehensive sequencing of many cancer samples, huge number of mutated genes were discovered, so it is crucial to classify these genes into those whose mutations confer with selective gross advantage for the cancer ( driver genes mutations) and those which occur though the course  of tumourigenesis and do not have great impact on the selective gross advantage (passenger mutations). There are about 140 driver genes identified till now. A typical tumour contains two to eight of these driver gene mutations. Driver genes can be classified into 12 signalling pathways that regulate three core cellular processes: cell fate, cell survival, and genome maintenance (Fig. 1). Therefore, targeting the driver genes or their products could have a great impact on tumour growth. Besides, the administration of unnecessary, costly, and potentially toxic treatment will be  avoided.2 Fig ure 1. Cancer cell signaling pathways and the cellular processes they regulate. (Vogelstein et al ., 2013) Genomics and targeted therapy Targeted therapy towards the products of mutated driver genes has revolutionized the modern cancer therapy. This is best exemplified by imatinib which targets the Abelson (ABL) kinas in chronic myeloid leukaemia (CML). ABL kinase is a chimeric oncogenic fusion protein resulted from a reciprocal translocation of break point cluster (BCR) on chromosome 22 and ABL on chromosome 9. Food and drug administration (FDA) approved imatinib as first-line treatment for CML in 2001 for its magnificent response with  89% overall rate of 5-uear survival for patients treated. 3 It is crucial to accurately match patients with the most appropriate drugs. Otherwise, some anti- cancer drugs would be clinically useless because the personal and financial costs would far outweigh the benefits. For example, targeted epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitors achieve a response rate of 71% in patients with non-small cell lung cancer whose tumour harbour an activating EGFR mutation compared with 1% for those  without a mutation.3 There are many targeted drugs that are already used or will enter the clinic soon (Table 1).3 Genetic networks and pathways: one hit is not enough Genomics has shed the light on genetic networking and pathways, where tumourigenesis results from multiple mutations in different genetic networks driving one or more pathways that eventually lead to the acquisition of the growth advantage. This could explain why some targeted drugs are thwarted by resistance. Moreover, this could provide novel combinations for therapeutic  intervention.4 For example, most of melanomas are driven by mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway which is composed of Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK switches. Melanoma patients who have B-RAF V600E variant greatly respond to the B-RAF inhibitors (vemurafenib and dabrafenib). Vemurafenib was approved by FDA in 2011 for  increasing the survival in melanoma patients. 4 Unfortunately, this response is short-lived and  regulation of two other agonists of MAPK- signalling, C-RAF and MAP3K8/COT, could bypass the requirement for B-RAF by re-activating the pathway downstream of the drug target. In a similar vein, Nazarian et al. (2010) have shown that another member in the same pathway called MEK – a downstream kinase to B-RAF- is also mutated in resistant cases. Therefore, adding MEK inhibitors to vemurafenib, could effectively  eliminate most of resistant cells.4 Recently, Villanueva et al. (2013) have shown that the response rate to MEK inhibitor (trametinib) is decreasing. Resistance to MEK and BRAF inhibitors was conferred to MEK2-Q60P mutation and BRAF-V600E amplification, respectively, resulting in sustained MAPK activation in the resistant cells. Interestingly, concurrent use of both dabrafenib and trametinib from the start, not after developing resistance, could significantly improve the efficacy and decrease resistance to therapy. Moreover, a triple combination of dabrafenib, trametinib, and the PI3K/mTOR inhibitor GSK2126458 led to sustained tumour growth  inhibition.5 This paves the way for novel combinations of drugs targeting multiple nodal points in cancer- driving pathways. As a result, cancer therapy will be more efficacious with less resistance. Oncogenic signatures: completing the atlas Many cancer genome projects unleashed in the past decade have identified essentially complete sets of protein-coding genes, coupled with the discovery of novel microRNAs. Moreover, deeper coverage of many cancer genomes has identified a wealth of somatic mutations, including copy- number changes (deletions and amplifications of DNA), rearrangements, point mutations and small insertions in many tumour types. However, the real challenge is to classify these enormous data sets and translate them into functional and actionable  alterations.6 Recently, computational algorithms and functional genomics together with the sequencing of complete genomes of human cancers provide comprehensive catalogues of somatic mutations that fuel different types of cancers. Moreover, these catalogues predict possible targets for therapy in a  resistance emerged towardsB-RAF inhibitors. Johannessen et al. (2010) have shown that up-selected cancer. *PARP denotes poly (adenosine diphosphate–ribose) polymerase. (McDermott et al., 2011) For example, The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) provides molecular tumour maps in unprecedented detail. 3,299 TCGA tumours from 12 cancer types are classified according to their genetic and epigenetic alterations, and then they are gathered into pathways that affect oncogenesis with correlation between these functional alteration and available targeted therapy (Fig. 2). The globally coordinated International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC), of which TCGA is a member, will add thousands more samples and additional tumour types which together with computational algorisms will lead to better  understanding of cancer.6 In the future, we would have a genomic atlas for different types of cancers guiding us through our quest for finding a cure for cancer. MicroRNA and cancer: tiny but powerful MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs which enhance the cleavage or translational repression of specific mRNA with recognition site(s) in the 3’-untranslated region (3’UTR). They are involved in multiple biological activities as well as disease progression including cancer. Depending on the functions of their targets, they could act as either tumour suppressors or oncogenes. Dysregulation of miRNAs has been widely observed in different stages of cancer either by structural genetic alterations, epigenetic changes or abnormal biogenesis.7 Recently, miRNA-based anticancer therapies have been exploited, either alone or in combination with current targeted therapies. MicroRNA approaches could concurrently target multiple effectors of pathways involved in cell differentiation proliferation and survival (Fig. 3). 7 For example, O’Day et al. (2010) have shown that miR-24 inhibits proliferation through direct targeting of c-Myc, E2F1 and a number of related molecules. Interestingly, Ma et al. (2010) have shown the crucial role of miR-10b in breast cancer metastasis. This group has also exploited a possible therapeutic application, reporting that systemic treatment of tumour-bearing mice with miR-10b antagomirs suppresses breast cancer metastasis. This opens the door for the use of oligonucleotides or virus-based constructs to either block the expression of an oncogenic Figure 2. Map of functional and actionable alterations across 12 tumor types. Tumor types abbreviated as: BLCA, Bladder urothelial carcinoma; BRCA, Breast invasive carcinoma; COADREAD, Colon and rectum adenocarcinoma; GBM, Glioblastoma multiform; HNSC, Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma; KIRC, Kidney renal clear-cell carcinoma; LAML, Acute myeloid leukemia; LUAD, Lung adenocarcinoma; LUSC, Lung squamous cell carcinoma; OV, Ovarian serous cystadenocarcinoma; UCEC, Uterine corpus endometrioid carcinoma; MSS, Microsatellite stable; MSI, microsatellite instability; Ultra, ultramutators; Low CNA, endometrioid; RTK, receptor tyrosine kinase; DSB, double-strand break.  (Ciriello et al., 2013)  miRNA or to reintroduce a tumour suppressor miRNA lost in cancer.7 Cancer inunwtotherapy: awaken the giant For a cancer to develop and metastasise, it must first escape the immune surveillance. Cancer uses a Houdini mechanism to hide its antigens and deceive the immune system. Hanks et al. (2013) have shown that loss of tumour-expressed type III transforming growth factor receptor (TGF R3), enhance TGF-signalling within loco-regional dendritic cells (DCs) and up-regulated both the immune-regulatory enzyme indoleamine 2, 3- dioxygenase (IDO) in plasmacytoid DCs and the CCL22 chemokine in myeloid DCs. These alterations mediate T regulatory cells infiltration  and the suppression of antitumor immunity.8 Interestingly, the therapeutic benefit derived from the combination of an antigen-specific vaccine with a TGF- signalling inhibitor in murine HER2/NEU-expressing 4T1 tumours was primarily mediated by an enhanced antitumor T cell response. This opens the door for using novel TGF- signalling inhibitor in enhancing the  immune therapy.8 Another recent approach in this field is releasing the brakes of the immune system by using checkpoint blocking antibodies. For example, antibodies directed against cytotoxic T ­ lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) (e.g. Ipilimumab) and programmed death 1 receptor (PD-1) (e.g. Nivoluma) have demonstrated significant recent promise in the treatment of an expanding list of malignancies. Ipilimumab was approved by FDA in 2011 for significantly improving the survival of patients with metastatic melanoma. Further research will demonstrate much more checkpoints that can enhance immunotherapy either alone or  with combinations with other drugs.9 Interestingly, cancerous cells also have some tricks to escape the radar of the natural killer cells (NKs). For example, cancerous cells down ­ express their natural killer group 2, member D ­ ligands (NKG2D-Ls) required for activation of  NKG2D receptors on NKs. 10 Bedel et al. (2011) have shown a pivotal and novel role for signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) in modulating the expression ofMHC-I chain-related A (MICA) -one member ofNKG2D-L family- in cancer cells. Interestingly, neutralizing STAT3 with pharmacologic inhibitors or siRNA has led to an  increase in NK degranulation and IFNy Figure 3. MicroRNAs targeting the hallmarks of cancer. (Iorio et al., 2012) This sets the stage for developing novel effective immunotherapies in the future as well as increasing todays ones efficacy. Conclusion Genomics has revolutionary changed the landscape of cancer management. Whole genome sequencing of many cancer types combined with computational algorithms will add a wealth of information to our current knowledge. In the future, complete comprehensive genomic atlas will be available for most cancer types. Therefore, the mutations driving an individuals cancer could be exactly identified then precisely targeted by chemotherapeutics, immunotherapy, synthetic oligonucleotides or combinations of those. This will increase the efficacy of the therapy. Besides, the administration of unnecessary, costly, and potentially toxic treatment will be avoided. It will be true that cancer could be cured! References [1] Latest world cancer statistics Global cancer burden rises to 14.1 million new cases in 2012: Marked increase in breast cancers must be addressed. http://www.iarc.fr/en/mediacentre/pr/2013/pdfs/pr223_E.pdf. (12 December 2013) [2] Vogelstein, B et al. Cancer genome landscapes.  SCIENCE 2013; 339: 1546–1558 [3] McDermott, U, Downing, JR, Stratton, MR. Genomics and the continuum of cancer care. N Engl J Med 2011;  364:340-50 [4] Sandmann, T, Boutros, M. Screens, maps networks: from genome sequences to personalized medicine. Current Opinion in Genetics Development 2012; 22:36–44 [5] Villanueva, J et al. Concurrent MEK2 mutation and BRAF amplification confer resistance to BRAF and MEK inhibitors in melanoma. Cell Reports 2013; 4: 1090–1099 [6] Ciriello, G et al. Emerging landscape of oncogenic signatures across human cancers. Nature Genetics 2013;  45:1127-1133 [7] Iorio, MV, Croce, CM. MicroRNA dysregulation in cancer: diagnostics, monitoring and therapeutics. a comprehensive review. EMBO Mol Med 2012; 4:143–159 [8] Hanks,BA et al. Type III TGF-ÃŽ ² receptor downregulation generates an immunotolerant tumor microenvironment. The Journal of Clinical Investigation  2013; 123: 3925-3940 [9] Kyi, C, Postow, MA. Checkpoint blocking antibodies in cancer immunotherapy. FEBS Letters 2014; 588: 368–376 [10] Bedel, R et al. Novel role for STAT3 in transcriptional regulation of NK immune cell targeting receptor MICA on cancer cells. Cancer Res 2011; 71:1615-1626 (Word count: 2,124) Three lab choices 1. Cancer genome project(Prof. Mike Stratton ) 2. Gene expression genomics(Dr. Sarah Teichmann) 3. Epigenetic reprogramming(Prof. Wolf Reik) 8

Business Model Of Zara In The Fashion Industry Commerce Essay

Business Model Of Zara In The Fashion Industry Commerce Essay Established in 1975, Zara is one of the most successful retailers of todays world. Their clear focus and vision has made them to tap the power of the fashion. Operating in 62 different countries it has nearly around 2500 stores all over the world. Zara under the flagship of Inditex, (a holding company located in Northwest Spain) is a fashion imitator, it comprehends what its customers desire and then designs and manufactures according to their expectations. Zaras business working model is quite diverse from the other retailers; this makes them set out in the market. It has promoted the message of high fashion at a lesser cost across all countries through its unique and different selling techniques. The Sustainability of Zara Understanding and comparing the Business strategy and the financial differences of Inditex and its major competitor will help in understanding the sustainability of Zara in the international apparel market. Gap which is one of Zaras major competitors sells the same range of merchandise with a less trendy style. HM (Hennes and Mauritz) a threatening competitor too has been quick to internationalize, which allows them to gain sales in countries outside their native Sweden. HM also is more attentive when entering new markets and tends to enter one country at a time, as opposed to Zara who multitasks globally. Furthermore its been known that HM has 85% current assets in its business where as Zara has only 50% of current assets. This shows that Zara has more of fixed assets and its current assets are quite fast moving as seen in its business model. Spains well-liked brand Zara, aims to offer the latest catwalk style at the most affordable price. Zaras women and mens collection is divided into three categories. With a unique product strategy Zara comes up with 14,000 designs per year, with new designs appearing in the stores globally, twice a week.  It generally focuses on performing key activities differently in its supply chain which is 2-2.5 months that makes it sustainable and sets challenges for its competitors. The key factor that makes Zaras design sustainable is the wide assortments of whisking budget interpretations of catwalk products as customers these days prefer spending on education, healthcare, electronics and travel, then on clothing due to recession. Another factor that makes Zara prolonged is its store location and layout. Although products are at inexpensive rates, their aristocratic stores layout makes it feel exclusive as they are large, swish and centrally located. The company doesnt spend much on advertising as it believes to give the added value to their customers rather than spending on brand promotion. While its rivals start planning their lines on average nine months before they hit the shelves, Zara has a reputation for instant reaction to fashion trends and rapid restocking of stores. Zara can make on new line, from the initial concept to when it arrives in the shop, in just three weeks. In addition the  Zara technology makes the designers in daily contact with store managers, discussing which items are most in demand and which are not. (Bmelie, 2006). Zara recruits talented young designers and trains them to take swift decision. This way it has re-thought the fashion business and developed into a concept of its own and its efforts are therefore focused on reducing the time between design and sale which means that its production cycle is entirely different from fashion sector norms. The focus on market changes means that 85 percent of products are manufactured in the season they are sold. The Retail Environment In the retail environment, the cycles of products, sales volume and analysis and direction of locations are conveyed to the designers by store manager and sals associates so that Zara designers in Spain can quickly respond to customers preferences during seasons. Moreover, no stock holding concept has seen to be the most outstanding idea of Zaras retailing strategy while rest of fashion retailer keep conducting traditional function of buying and holding stock. This strategy indicates that Zara requires a speedy interaction with current fashion trend. All new items are introduced twice a week and presented in store shelves in only two weeks. Reducing the cost by controlling stock improved Zaras earnings and retailing efficiency. In terms of manufacturing, Zara sources grey fabric to get the most flexible in-season updating, and to turn it into various kinds of garments very easily. In addition, the best benefit is that grey fabric suits for its basic black collection. Additionally, Zara buys fabric: un-coloured and semi-processed one based on the immediate their designers need which colours up close to the selling season, couple with making the clothes itself. These help Zaras manufacturing fast, no more than few days, while other competitors companies take up to months (Dutta, 2002). Thus, Zara is competent to develop a new product line within three weeks. (Michael A. Hitt, 2008)(Ghemawat, 2003). Zara has excellent international strategies both in manufacturing and retailing which been organized and conducted well leads Zara become one of most successful case in fashion industry.   Customer orientation and the paramount suppleness form the bases of Zaras business model. Its 480,000 square meter centralized distribution system is capable of handling 60,000 garments per hour. The market clothing is always in development and movement. The distribution channel is the network which links producers with users yet international distribution strategies are difficult to manage since distribution structures differ from one country to the next (Keegan Green, 2003). Below is the model depicting the factors on which one can determine the sustainability of Zara. The Win- Win Strategy Discussed below are the ways in which Zara has shown its influence on the retails brands and the fashion market. These impacts can be seen as affirmative as well as negative. In the high-speed racing with fashion industry, there is no one that is better than ZARA. So what makes Zara a true winner amongst others? The answer is: Zara has highly affected the fashion industry in a short span of time. It has fashioned a position for itself in the middle of the crammed full retail market. There are a number of key positive influences of Zaras model in fashion industry. Firstly, Zaras highly effective supply chain can get product to store in a week, whereas traditional clothing retails spend more time, usually one or three months. This provides customers with latest collections each time they visit the store and also more options to pick from. Secondly, Well-developed IT syste has certain benefits: it increases productivity, which accelerates to improve quality, increases the work intensity and the complete IT system provides the software support for the successful operation in the fashion industry. Zaras successful business model not only maximizes the profit and saves time but also they provide an excellent business example for the whole fashion industry. Finally; Zaras successful business strategy provides as a study example for the other fashion companies around the world. For example, Chinas famous fashion brand -Metersbonwe, follows Zaras model. In 2009, Metersbonwe costumes opened Terminal Direct-oriented work, which was a huge adjustment to their retail network and for which they spent nearly one billion Yuan in a nationwide purchase. As the proverb goesevery coin has its two sides, there are some unconstructive impacts of Zara in fashion industry. First of all, confronted with such a thorny issue, Zara has been accused of flagrant pricy, which it denies. And theres perhaps a certain amount of snobby in the implication that a company from an obscure corner of northern Spain has no right to ape catwalk styles (Mark Tungate, 2005). In addition, Zaras design, they directly collect and copy the new fashion information all over the world through the network. Zara might require paying a large compensation due to Plagiarism problem. This has seriously affected the integrity of the fashion industry. US market poses as a big unique challenge for Zara, as its not able to have the same impact over America as it has on the rest of the world. In the present highly fragmented nature of fashion retailing it has become necessary for Zara to differentiate itself from its competitors in the North American market. All these difficul ties oppose Zara to establish themselves in the culturally diverse background and to have an impact on the US market. Conclusion Giving a tuff competition to the luxury brands such as Dior, Channel, Armani and many others Zara is entering into the luxury brand market through its branding and marketing strategy. It dresses women, men and kids in a sexy retail environment which might appear to look quite expensive and exclusive than what it actually is. A well-known U.S publishing institution; in one of their releases referred to a very remarkable concept: fast fashion, and predicted that Zara will be the consumer trend for the next decade. Nevertheless, under the economic crunch, Zara is facing unprecedented competition and challenges in global fashion market. It truly is a global fashion brand and the day is no far when it will be considered as a fashion icon in the fashion industry. Journal Articles from electronic source Expansià ³n-Empresas. 2003. Spains Best Brands. Available at http://www.brandchannel.com/features_effect.asp?pf_id=197 [Accessed on 9th January 2010] Baiidu. 2010. Available at: http://baike.baidu.com/view/ [Access on 7 January 2010] Virki, T., 2009. World teens cutting spending on clothes, games. Available at http://uk.reuters.com/article/idUKTRE58E6CQ20090915 [Accessed on 10th January 2010] Books Jackson, T. and Shaw, D. (2001) FASHION BUYING AND MERCHANDISING MANAGEMENT. PLGRAVE Publish. Pp: 114-115 120 -127 134 174-176 Hines, T. and Bruce, M. (2007) Fashion Marketing Contemporary issues. Elsevier Ltd. pp 28-33 40-50 55-61 Keegan, W.J. Green M.C. (2003) Global Marketing 3rd edition, New Jersey, Prentice Hall. Journal Articles Ying,F., Carmen, L. 2009. Internationalization of Spanish brand Zara. Emerald Journal article, Vol.13 No. 2 Mazaira, A., E. Gonzalez, Avendano. R. The role of marketing communication on company performance. Emerald Journal Article, Vol 10 No.3 Online Newspaper Articles James.H. 2008, Zara is now bigger than Gap, Telegraph [Internet] 17th August. Available at http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/retailandconsumer/2794912/Zara-is-now-bigger-than-Gap.html [Accessed on 10th January] [emailprotected] 2002 The Speed of Fashion [online]. Available from: http://www.3isite.com/articles/ImagesFashion_Zara_Part_I.pdf [Accessed 13 January 2010] CNN. 2001 a Spanish success story [online]. Available from: http://edition.cnn.com/BUSINESS/programs/yourbusiness/stories2001/zara/ [Accessed 14 January 2010] ICMrinda organization. 2006. Available at http://www.icmrindia.org/casestudies/catalogue/Operations/OPER055.htm. [Accessed on 8th January 2010] Images http://alwaysnewmistakes.files.wordpress.com/2008/06/zara.jpg http://lh5.ggpht.com/vincent.vanwylick/SBb7__KLLnI/AAAAAAAAAlo/40-BFhhw2U8/Zara%20versus%20HM.jpg publications Inditex. 2008. Annual report 2008 Zara. Available at http://www.inditex.com/en/shareholders_and_investors/investor_relations/annual_reports [Accessed on 11th January 2010] Marketing good businesss even better. 2008. The story of Zara. Published by Sister Pblications. Available at http://www.uniquebusinessstrategies.co.uk/pdfs/case%20studies/zarathespeedingbullet.pdf [accessed on 5th January 2010] http://www.shoppingnsales.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/20090624-zara-sale.jpg http://vuesociety.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/zara.jpg http://www.techo.com/media/gallery/original/Zara_CZ_04_001.jpg

Essay --

You see the images that the public is demanding. Why more reality-based TV? You'd think that after the first Survivor it would have gone away, but it hasn't. The public demands it because they get all caught up in the personal stories, and want to see more and more.† Montel Williams tells his guest audience about how the press is always wanting to get up close and personal in people's business. As a star and MS patient, Williams knows exactly what he is talking about. Born Montel Brian Anthony Williams on July 3, 1959 in Baltimore, Maryland, Williams was bound for greatness. Growing up, Williams was already a star to everyone. In high school he was the class president his junior and senior year. He was an athlete, musician, and all around a great student. He was well known throughout his community, he was always active in county-wide government issues that was for all the students. As he got older, people still knew his name and his stardom was still advancing. After graduating in 1974 from high school, Williams enlisted into the U.S. Marine Corps. Being very impressed with Montel's strength and leadership, his superiors requested him to be placed in the Naval Academy Preparatory School at Newport, Rhode Island. Later he was accepted to the U.S. Academy at Annapolis and that is where this stars real battle begins. The well-known Montel Williams was hit with some devastating news that would later change his life drastically and forever. Although the now famous talk show host from The Montel Williams Show, the movie star, and the award winner has had to live and deal with multiple sclerosis for a good portion of his life, he has overcome many adversities such as Hollywood shame, pain, and the fear of giving up. Before graduating in ... ...has done. Every goal that was set was accomplished and every thought of defeat was pushed aside. Montel Williams is a true fighter and refused to let any of his adversities hold him back. He has never given up and still today informs his audience and the people about this disease and makes them aware that they are not invincible from it. Williams has made it through the recognition, the pain, the press, and the suffering. He has become one of the worlds most well-known and accomplished star and philanthropists. He has dedicated his life to helping others and informing others about multiple sclerosis. He knows the heartaches and the pain these people have been through, go through, and will go through. He knows what these patients need to fight back and win. He knows because he is a fighter himself and he defeats his illness everyday and in his eyes reigns victorious.

Islam the Role and Function of the Mosque in a Muslim Community :: essays research papers

The role and function of the mosque in a Muslim community A mosque is generally a very symbolic place for a Muslim, being a humble way for Muslims to recreate pure divine presence on earth. The primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place where Muslims can come together for prayer. Nevertheless, mosques are known around the world nowadays for their Islamic architecture but most importantly for its general vitality to the Muslim Ummah (community). A mosque brings the community together as it acts as many things, a social centre, a community centre and an educational centre etc as it has many events which welcome both old and new members of the mosque. In addition to holding the five obligatory daily prayers, mosques hold jumu?ah prayers, or Friday prayers, which replace the midday prayer as the second required prayer on Fridays. It is required for all men to attend mosque on Friday for Jumu?ah. The sermons often have a strong practical slant, trying to integrate and apply Islamic beliefs and historical teachings into contemporary daily life. In many Islamic societies, jumu'ah often has a significant community or even political role. I believe sermons are significant in bringing the community together as the congregation is standing side by side in a line, facing Mecca, together, all united in their faith and worship of Allah There are study centres for new comers of the faith to come and learn about the Islamic faith, about the teachings of the Qur?an, learn how to read it and pronounce . These are often take place on weekends or in the evenings. Some mosques provide full time schools if you depend on the mosque to provide a full time Islamic education. Few but some mosques have Madrassah?s Arabic classes, classes on the Shariah, the hadith, the Sunnah, Tafsir(Qur?anic interpretation) and Muslim history. This will expand ones knowledge of Islam and will also draw them closer to their faith. Mostly children attend this study centre however all are welcome who care to learn.. Which can deepen the faith as it can expand ones understanding of Islam. Islam the Role and Function of the Mosque in a Muslim Community :: essays research papers The role and function of the mosque in a Muslim community A mosque is generally a very symbolic place for a Muslim, being a humble way for Muslims to recreate pure divine presence on earth. The primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place where Muslims can come together for prayer. Nevertheless, mosques are known around the world nowadays for their Islamic architecture but most importantly for its general vitality to the Muslim Ummah (community). A mosque brings the community together as it acts as many things, a social centre, a community centre and an educational centre etc as it has many events which welcome both old and new members of the mosque. In addition to holding the five obligatory daily prayers, mosques hold jumu?ah prayers, or Friday prayers, which replace the midday prayer as the second required prayer on Fridays. It is required for all men to attend mosque on Friday for Jumu?ah. The sermons often have a strong practical slant, trying to integrate and apply Islamic beliefs and historical teachings into contemporary daily life. In many Islamic societies, jumu'ah often has a significant community or even political role. I believe sermons are significant in bringing the community together as the congregation is standing side by side in a line, facing Mecca, together, all united in their faith and worship of Allah There are study centres for new comers of the faith to come and learn about the Islamic faith, about the teachings of the Qur?an, learn how to read it and pronounce . These are often take place on weekends or in the evenings. Some mosques provide full time schools if you depend on the mosque to provide a full time Islamic education. Few but some mosques have Madrassah?s Arabic classes, classes on the Shariah, the hadith, the Sunnah, Tafsir(Qur?anic interpretation) and Muslim history. This will expand ones knowledge of Islam and will also draw them closer to their faith. Mostly children attend this study centre however all are welcome who care to learn.. Which can deepen the faith as it can expand ones understanding of Islam.

Florida Should Legalize Euthanasia :: Free Essay Writer

Florida Should Legalize Euthanasia Florida should legalize euthanasia and I offer the following plan. The way Florida would legalize euthanasia should be by setting up a set of professional doctors who could examine all cases in which a person or an ill patients family request euthanasia due to extreme pain or an incurable disease. The doctors could examine these people and if they find there is no way other than the use of machines 24-hours a day to keep these people alive they will allow the doctor of the patient to assist in suicide or in better terms freeing an immense pain and agony. The benefits from legalizing euthanasia in Florida would be the health care spent to keep many of the people who live on machines from terminally or incurable diseases would be saved, many families would not have to watch there family member die slowly, and many stories like Sue Rodriguez's would never be. In the first place, health care on people with incurable or deadly diseases cannot be paid by many people because of no medical insurance according to Euthanasia questions by the IAETF. The government jumps in and pays for the treatment and care. This could be replaced in incurable or agonizing pain situations with the better and cheaper treatment of death. Next, not all family life is harmonious, and underlying pathology can often be exacerbated by the stresses of a family member's terminal illness bring says an article in Law Medicine & Health Care of 1992. If euthanasia is legalized the family members of a patient could sleep peacefully knowing that they have been "mercied" and died easily and with little pain instead of being kept alive by a machine or dying slowly and painfully from an incurable disease. Finally, let me tell you a true story from Vess Fast Access TO Information On Euthanasia, about a 31-year old mother named Sue Rodriguez. Sue Rodriguez was dying slowly of the incurable Lou Gehrig's disease. She lived several years with the knowledge that the disease would one by one waste away her muscles until the point while still conscious the lack of muscles would choke her to death. She begged the courts to allow her and her doctor to choose the moment of her death instead of the inspicable pain of being choked to death. The court refused to mercy her and she lived in terror every day. Every morning she would wake up wondering if this is the day she would be choked to death maybe while her children watch. In February 1994, Sue Rodriguez died. Florida Should Legalize Euthanasia :: Free Essay Writer Florida Should Legalize Euthanasia Florida should legalize euthanasia and I offer the following plan. The way Florida would legalize euthanasia should be by setting up a set of professional doctors who could examine all cases in which a person or an ill patients family request euthanasia due to extreme pain or an incurable disease. The doctors could examine these people and if they find there is no way other than the use of machines 24-hours a day to keep these people alive they will allow the doctor of the patient to assist in suicide or in better terms freeing an immense pain and agony. The benefits from legalizing euthanasia in Florida would be the health care spent to keep many of the people who live on machines from terminally or incurable diseases would be saved, many families would not have to watch there family member die slowly, and many stories like Sue Rodriguez's would never be. In the first place, health care on people with incurable or deadly diseases cannot be paid by many people because of no medical insurance according to Euthanasia questions by the IAETF. The government jumps in and pays for the treatment and care. This could be replaced in incurable or agonizing pain situations with the better and cheaper treatment of death. Next, not all family life is harmonious, and underlying pathology can often be exacerbated by the stresses of a family member's terminal illness bring says an article in Law Medicine & Health Care of 1992. If euthanasia is legalized the family members of a patient could sleep peacefully knowing that they have been "mercied" and died easily and with little pain instead of being kept alive by a machine or dying slowly and painfully from an incurable disease. Finally, let me tell you a true story from Vess Fast Access TO Information On Euthanasia, about a 31-year old mother named Sue Rodriguez. Sue Rodriguez was dying slowly of the incurable Lou Gehrig's disease. She lived several years with the knowledge that the disease would one by one waste away her muscles until the point while still conscious the lack of muscles would choke her to death. She begged the courts to allow her and her doctor to choose the moment of her death instead of the inspicable pain of being choked to death. The court refused to mercy her and she lived in terror every day. Every morning she would wake up wondering if this is the day she would be choked to death maybe while her children watch. In February 1994, Sue Rodriguez died.

Math Achievement Essay

Abstract This paper outlines the author’s purpose for reviewing literature on gender differences in mathematics education. An overview of research findings on gender and mathematics from industrial societies (USA, Australia, and UK) and from some developing countries in Southern Africa (South Africa, Mozambique, and Botswana) is then presented. Some causal factors for the existence of gender differences in mathematics achievement are critiqued and the link between mathematics and social entities (democracy and power) are challenged. The implications of the above for research on girls learning mathematics in Botswana (and Africa) are finally suggested. Introduction Literature review should not be considered as merely part of the requirements in scholarly enterprises, but as a critical undertaking in which the investigator exercises a constant scepticism on an issue of interest. In this paper, literature review is used as a process to critique the conscious and unconscious assumptions of scholarly research on gender differentials in mathematics education. It serves as a qualitative analysis to determine how these assumptions force the definition of problems and findings of such scholarly research efforts. The paper examines literature on research studies which have dealt with gender differentials in mathematics classroom dynamics. The disenfranchisement of girls in mathematics learning discourses and girls’ motivational orientations in mathematics are important issues for the human development efforts in Botswana. The paper draws upon literature from  Western countries, specifically the USA, the UK and Australia where research on gender differences in mathematics has been considerable and influential. The socio-political, cultural and socioeconomic contexts in these countries, however, differ from those of Southern Africa in many aspects of development (education, technology, economic, etc.), but there are possibilities to draw parallels, albeit in a limited way. Through considering parallels and differences between Western industrial cultures and Africa, the paper examines issues pertinent to African girls affecting their education. The literature analysis is against the backdrop of problems such as HIV/AIDS and unplanned pregnancies faced by girls within African communities. Botswana (like most of Africa) is grappling with the HIV/AIDS pandemic; high levels of unemployment and poverty (BIDPA, 2000). The African Economic Commission (1999:5) states that: Data from Botswana, Burundi, Central African Republic, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe indicate that girls 15 to 19 years old have an (HIV/AIDS) infection rate four to ten times that of boys in the same group. This is the age group within which research on gender and mathematics has tended to focus. According to Okojie (2001), the Botswana study, commissioned by the African Academy of Sciences Research Programme, indicated the rate of teenage pregnancy being higher than that of most other African countries. HIV/AIDS, unplanned pregnancies and lack of interest in mathematics are amongst real problems that girls in the developing world face which must be taken on board when embarking on a sociological research analysis involving gender differences. Notwithstanding these developments, the question of how to motivate students in the classroom is a leading concern for teachers of all disciplines. Student motivation becomes especially relevant to mathematics education in the light of recurring questions about how to get more students interested and involved in the subject. As we proceed in the new millennium, Botswana is plagued with significant high-school dropout rates and declining interest in mathematics among secondary school students. Educators and policy makers  need to understand the educational techniques that may ‘suffocate students’ interest in learning’ (Boggiano and Pittman, 1992), then work to rekindle that interest. This paper is concerned with the use of mathematics as a ‘filter’ for further education and career choices. This affects girls more as they tend to shy away from the study of higher level mathematics, science and engineering as reflected in the University of Botswana yearly intake (Fact Books 2002; 2003; 2004/5; 2005/6). The literature analysis proceeds from an articulation of girls’ reported achievement tendencies within mathematics learning discourses in the developed world and explores the situation in Africa, particularly Southern Africa, with a special focus on Botswana. Gender differences in mathematics education The developed world’s perspective on gender and mathematics Contemporary research studies reflect scholars’ maturing view of the complexity of causation of differences between males and females in mathematics education. As Fennema (2000) rightly points out, from around 1970, ‘sex differences’ index was used to imply that any differences found were biologically, and thus, genetically determined, immutable and not changeable. During the 70’s and 80’s ‘sex-related differences’ criterion was often used to indicate that while the behaviour of concern was clearly related to the sex of the subjects, it was not necessarily genetically determined. Latey, ‘gender differences’ refers to social or environmental causation of differences that are observed between the sexes. This paper critically reviews work by leading researchers in the era of this new understanding of gender differences. According to Leder (1996) there were probably more research studies published on gender and mathematics than any other area between 1970 and 1990. Fennema (1993, 2000) concluded that while many studies had been poorly analysed and/or included sexist interpretations, there was evidence to support the existence of differences between girls’ and boys’ learning of mathematics, particularly in activities that required complex reasoning; that the differences increased at about the onset of adolescence and were recognised by many leading mathematics  educators. Salmon (1998) concurred with the notion that gender differences increase at secondary school level, particularly in situations that require complex reasoning. In the absence of an African position disputing such views, it suffices to assume that similar differences might occur in the Southern African c ontexts. Studies by Fennema and Sherman (1977, 1978) documented sex-related differences in achievement and participation, and found gender differences in the election of advanced level mathematics courses. They hypothesised that if females participated in advanced mathematics classes at the same rate that males did, gender differences would disappear. Stanley and Benbow (1980) used interpretations of some of their studies as a refutation of this ‘differential course-taking hypothesis’. They argued that gender differences in mathematics were genetic, a claim which was widely attacked and disproved, but whose publication had unfortunate repercussions (Jacobs and Eccles, 1985). Fennema and Sherman (1977, 1978) identified as critical, beliefs about the usefulness of, and confidence in learning mathematics, with males providing evidence that they were more confident about learning mathematics and believed that mathematics was, and would be, more useful to them than did females. There was evidence that while young men did not strongly stereotype mathematics as a male domain, they did believe much more strongly than did young women that mathematics was more appropriate for males than for females. The importance of these variables (confidence, usefulness and male stereotyping), their long-term influence, and their differential impact on females and males was re-confirmed by many other studies (Hyde et al., 1990; Tartre and Fennema, 1991; Leder, 1992). Earlier, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) had reported differences between females and males in spatial skills, particularly spatial visualization or the ability to visualize movements of geometric figures in one’s mind. The Fennema-Sherman studies and the Fennema and Tartre (1985) longitudinal study investigated spatial skills or spatial visualisation. They found that while spatial visualisation was positively correlated with mathematics achievement  (that does not indicate causation), not all girls were handicapped by inadequate spatial skills, except those who scored very low on spatial tasks. Fennema (1993) suggested that an appropriate curriculum redesign could compensate for these weak skills. Other studies (Kerns and Berenbaum, 1991; Voyer, Voyer and Bryden, 1995) reported boys outperforming girls on tests of visual/spatial abilities: the ability, that is, to draw inferences about or to otherwise mentally manipulate pictorial information. The male advantage in spatial abilities was reportedly not large, but detectable by middle childhood and persisted across the life span. Casey, Nuttall and Pezaris (1997) concluded that sex differences in visual/spatial abilities and the problem-solving strategies they support contribute to sex differences in arithmetic reasoning. Although they were not particularly innovative nor offered insights that others were not suggesting, the Fennema-Sherman studies had a major impact since they were published when the concern with gender and mathematics was growing internationally. They were identified by Walberg & Haertel (1992) and others as among the most often quoted social science and educational research studies during the 80’s and 90’s. The problems of gender and mathematics were defined and documented in terms of the study of advanced mathematics courses, the learning of mathematics, and selected related variables that appeared relevant both to students’ selection of courses and learning of mathematics. The Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Attitude Scales have been widely used as guidelines for planning interventions and research studies. Campbell (1986) found that girls’ lack of confidence in themselves as mathematics learners, their perception of mathematics as difficult, and their view that mathematics is a male activity, all had impact on girls’ attitudes, achievement, and participation in advanced courses. In a longitudinal study of sixth, eighth, tenth, and twelfth grades, Tartre and Fennema (1991) found that, for girls, viewing mathematics as a male domain was correlated to mathematics achievement. Girls in single-sex schools or in out-of-school mathematics projects – who did not see mathematics as an exclusively male domain tended to have higher mathematics success. When this dynamic was changed to make mathematics accessible to both girls and boys, girls’ interest and involvement were found to rise. Reyes and Stanic (1988) and Secada (1992) have argued that socioeconomic status and ethnicity interact with gender to influence mathematics learning. Forgasz and Leder (1998) share the view that gender differentials in participation rates are associated with the interaction of positive attitudes and beliefs about mathematics and socioeconomic status. The transferability of these findings, based on Western cultural concepts, poses a problem for African contexts. Socioeconomic status indicators in Botswana for instance, somewhat differ from the UK model and need be appropriately contextualised. The question of ethnicity also becomes problematic in the Botswana context since about 85% of the population is of Tswana ethnic origin. Moreover, ethnic differences have never been of significance and might not necessarily affect gender differences in mathematics in the same way as in Western contexts. Trends of gender differences in mathematics from the United Kingdom The gender gap in performance throughout the subjects in the United Kingdom has been shifting in favour of girls since the early 1990s. In national curriculum tests and at higher level GCSE grades, girls outperform boys. For example, in 1997, 49% of girls achieved five or more higher grade GCSEs compared with 40% boys (DfEE, 1997). However, at the lower levels of GCSE attainment, the gender gap is smaller in percentage point terms. In 1997, 8.8% of boys and 6.5% of girls failed to gain GCSE qualifications (DfEE, 1997). These figures show some of the paradoxes in gender and attainment. Males gain most of the higher education top awards but the trend is for girls in general to do better in public examinations than boys – differences which are apparent in the earlier years of schooling. Consequently, current concerns about schooling are now more related to boys’ underachievement (as demonstrated in public examinations) than to that of girls. The question is whether such outcomes at school and higher education reflect approaches to assessment, methods of teaching, and/or expectations of society. The OfSTED (2003) report found that boys progress more than girls in mathematics throughout schools. Research indicated that in mathematics the gap between boys and girls attaining level 4 and above at the end of Key Stage 2 was only one percentage point, with boys at 73% and girls at 72%; however, 32% of boys achieved level 5 and above whilst only 26% girls did (OfSTED, 2003:13). According to OfSTED (2003:14) although the differences are smaller than those in English, it is a continuous trend and it is therefore still vital to understand why girls perform better in certain subjects such as literacy and underachieve in comparison to boys in mathematics. One key reason may be the perception girls have of this subject area. The 1998 OfSTED Report on ‘Recent Research on Gender and Education Performance’ stated that â€Å"science, mathematics, technology, ICT and PE are rated as ‘masculine’ by pupils and preferred by boys† (Arnot et al., 1998:31). Girls rated English, humanities, music, PSE and RE as feminine and preferred by girls. However, Archer and Macrae (1991) are cited in the same OfSTED report suggesting that mathematics has become more gender neutral perhaps reflected in the smaller gap between genders than that of literacy. The reason the gap has become smaller may be because girls are more prepared to tackle ‘masculine’ subjects. Public concern about the underperformance of boys has risen since the early 1990s as girls outstripped their male classmates academically. Although the proportion getting five C’s or better increased from 38% in 1996 to 46% in 2003, the gender gap remained steady at 10 percentage points in favour of girls. Both boys and girls in deprived areas got much lower grades than their more advantaged peers. But while girls in poor areas were improving faster than those in affluent areas, the gap between rich and poor boys remained constant. Dr. Deborah Wilson, Bristol University expert on the gender gap in schools, argued that the differences are likely to be a result of factors outside school: â€Å"The effect of poverty on exam results is greater than the effect of gender. If we focus more on the reasons for poverty affecting performance we might get better results for both boys and girls†Ã‚  (TES, 13 August 2004). According to Mendick (2002), in England, the evolving gendered patterns of attainment in mathematics need to be juxtaposed with the unchanging gendered patterns of participation in the subject. There are very few remaining differences between the attainment of male and female students in either GCSE, AS, or A-level mathematics examinations (taken at ages 16+, 17+ and 18 respectively) (Gorard et al., 2001; Guardian, 2002a, 2002b). Although boys are still more likely to secure the top A* and A grades at GCSE and A-level respectively, the differences are small and getting smaller. In contrast to these shifting patterns of attainment, the decision to continue with advanced mathematics remains highly gendered in favour of boys. This polarization persists despite decades of feminist intervention; as Shaw (1995:107) argues: â€Å"the most striking feature of subject choice is that the freer it is, the more gendered it is.† In fact, from 1994 to 2002, the proportion of the total number of 17 and 18 year-olds entered for A-level mathematics in England who are male showed little change, dropping only slightly from 65% to 63% (Government Statistical Service, 1995 to 2002; Guardian, 2002b). This greater participation of males in mathematics courses becomes more pronounced as you go up the levels from A-level, to undergraduate, and then to postgraduate, and is reflected in the larger number of men than women working in mathematically-oriented fields. Mendick (2002:1) argued: The gender gap in maths performance in this country, while still marginally in favour of boys, is continuing to narrow (Smithers, 2000; Gorard et al., 2001). However, the gender gap in participation in maths remains in spite of more than two decades of feminist initiatives for change. Moreover, maths becomes increasingly male dominated as we progress from sixth-form (ages 16 to 19) to undergraduate levels, and from undergraduate to postgraduate levels (Boaler, 2000)†¦ girls continue to disproportionately opt out of maths, a powerful area of the curriculum that provides a ‘critical filter’ (Sells, 1980) to high status areas of academia  and employment. The above suggests that although girls are doing better than boys overall across the subject areas in the UK, they still fall behind when choosing mathematics at higher levels of the education system. Mendick also portrays mathematics as a powerful subject, a signifier of intelligence that acts as a ‘critical filter’ controlling entry to higher status areas of academia and employment. Thus, for those concerned with social justice, it is pertinent to ask how it is that people come to choose mathematics and in what ways this process is gendered, which is the point of concern for this paper. According to Bevan (2005), the findings from the review of existing research included evidence that girls outperform boys in mathematics up to the beginning of A-level, but that the differences are small, and are not consistent across all components of the subject; attitudes to mathematics vary according to gender; there are significant differences in the expectations of boys and girls regarding their own performance in mathematics; boys and girls differ in their typical learning styles; and that ability grouping impacts differently on boys and girls. Bevan’s (2005) interviews revealed that teachers with very limited exposure to formal research were able to articulate judgments about gender differences in learning mathematics based solely on classroom experience; and that their intuitive judgments were often broadly correct, but tended to exaggerate the extent of any real differences. Presently there is no comparative research concerning Botswana teachers’ judgments on gender differences in the learning of mathematics. Sparkes (1999) pointed out that the gender gap in the UK was related to a variety of social issues including: parents’ educational attainment, growing up dependent on an income support recipient/eligible for free school meals, housing tenure and conditions, family structure (such as lone parent family), parental interest, involvement, practice, etc. These trends are different from the situation in Botswana and any comparisons need a contextual analysis of the situation. Perspectives from Africa with specific reference to Southern Africa Gender differences in mathematics education in developing countries are one critical area of research that needs further exploration. There is limited information about the status of contextual research on women and girls in those settings in relationship to their mathematical education. As Kitetu (2004:6-7) acknowledges from an African view: Unfortunately, while a lot of gender programmes have been carried out, not much research has been done within the classroom in the continent. Our understanding of gender in classroom practices is most often based on what has been studied in Western Europe and North America. I would like to argue that there is always a cultural angle in studies of social practices. Fortunately, there are emerging research efforts in the area of mathematics as the African continent begins to face up to the realities of gender differences in classroom practices. The persistent patriarchal attitudes in Africa tended to prevent researchers from problematising the gender issue. Investigating gender differences and Black South African learners’ attitudes towards mathematics, Mahlomaholo and Sematle (2004:4-5) reported that: The differences between boys and girls were very clear at all levels of analysis†¦ For example they (girls) said it was because of parental pressure/choice or because their friends were studying the discipline, or because their teachers instructed them to study mathematics. Others even went to the extent of citing chance or fate as responsible for them taking mathematics as an area of study†¦ They were apologetic and not taking responsibility on themselves†¦ They even expressed their embarrassment at not being good at mathematics, they also expressed the fear for their teachers whom they compared to lions†¦ they tended to agree that mathematics is for all and not for a particular gender. For the girls in Mahlomaholo and Sematle (2004:6-7), mathematics was â€Å"too  difficult† and  Ã¢â‚¬ ¦they were fed up with the subject and†¦ cannot be expected to continue with a subject that they were failing so dismally†¦ did not even have an interest in the subject as it demanded too much work and time to study while the boys saw much value in the discipline†¦There is no reason at all why some human beings do not have appropriate views regarding the study of mathematics, it is only because the views of a culture and a milieu that undermines women speak through them and have manifested themselves firmly in their minds. In their study of three successful women in mathematics related careers, Mahlomaholo and Mathamela (2004:3) reported the prevalence of a conventional patriarchal approach in the South African society. They argued that: It tends to privilege male interests and their privileged positions at the expense of women through the belief that the status quo where male dominate is natural and given†¦ Schools tend to operate in line with this approach. To underscore how the three women persevered in mathematics within the hostile cultural attitudes, Mahlomaholo and Mathamela (2004:7) argued that: †¦socialisation and upbringing, including home and family background, as well as parental support, were identified as factors that enabled the three women to go beyond the limitations of their situations. Mahlomaholo and Mathamela were convinced that beyond contextual and social factors the women had strong conceptions of themselves. They had self-belief in their abilities and a love for mathematics, which could not be dampened either by teachers’ negative remarks or the social structure’s negative stereotypes. The study identified social contextual factors and intra-psychic motivational factors as responsible for enabling female learners of mathematics to either excel or fail at the subject. Cassy (2004:5-6) reported from Mozambique that: â€Å"Although the main aim of the  education policy of the country is to promote, among others, gender equity in access to all education levels, there are more females than males, who do not benefit from this. This gender discrepancy increases over the education levels, being more at the tertiary level and particularly in mathematics and its related fields.† Cassy found significant differences between the patterns of attitudes towards mathematics expressed by boys and girls in which boys rated their attitudes more positively than girls did. Boys were more confident in working in mathematics than girls, and girls were more convinced that mathematics was a male domain than boys. Furthermore, girls were reported to believe much more than boys that mathematics is more appropriate for males than for females. Both girls and boys were found to agree that mathematics was useful. These findings are not different from what has been reported in Western research studies. Perhaps this was to be expected since the study used the Fennema-Sherman Mathematics Attitude Scale with its robust Western cultural questioning style. Cassy (2004:6) acknowledges that: â€Å"the majority of girls did not like the connotation of the items.† This calls for a more contextualised itemisation of the scales adopted from Western research contexts. Chacko (2004) presented another study from a Southern African perspective on the problems of students in learning mathematics and the approaches used in teaching mathematics in South Africa. Chacko reported no differences between girls and boys in terms of liking the subject. Chacko (2004:4) wrote: †¦ they do like mathematics and would like to do well in it but for them it is a very difficult subject. This interest in doing mathematics came out more prominently in township schools where they considered it important for future jobs. The South African students’ belief that mathematics is difficult was found among secondary school students in Zimbabwe (Chacko, 2000). Chacko (2004:4-5) further argues that students were encouraged to do well in mathematics because â€Å"their goals in life are something that is urging them to like mathematics which according to Hannula (2002) is ‘the value of  mathematics – related goals in the student’s global goal structure.’† It seems, from Chacko’s arguments that the liking of mathematics was not intrinsic to the students, but driven by the urge to do well in the subject because of the need and importance it presented for their future trajectories. According to Chacko (2004:8), girls in township schools seemed to spend more of out of school time on household chores, which could affect their studies. The same could be said about Botswana girls as Chacko (2004:5-6) further argued: †¦ chores took most of their time while school work was at the end when they were already tired to concentrate. This is more a developing country problem where chores in the house are kept for girls, which could affect the time they spent on learning and their vision for the future. †¦ Some of the girls in the township schools said that when they do not find time to complete homework, due to the reprimand from teachers, they would rather miss school. Once they miss school, it becomes difficult to catch up, which eventually lead to failure and drop out. Some of these problems are unique to the African contexts, and cannot be ignored when embarking on research on gender and mathematics. Chacko (2004:8) reported that the majority of students wanted mathematics to be made fun and to be related to life where they can see its use. â€Å"Girls in particular would like to see the content related to situations in life where these could be applied.† Some reported being shy and afraid to tell teachers that they did not understand, to avoid being ridiculed in public (by fellow classmates or teachers). Some of these issues are distinctive features of gender differences in African contexts which distinguish them from those of Western industrial societies. From the researcher’s experiences of teaching in secondary schools in Botswana and Nottingham (UK), there seems to be common ground with Chacko’s arguments. Over the years there have been efforts to address the gender disparities in  education in Africa, with a particular concern on the enrolment of girls, which for years has been very low. As Kitetu (2004) put it: The imbalance in boys’ and girls’ participation in schooling was linked to the age-long belief in male superiority and female subordination. This situation was further explained as aggravated by patriarchal practices, which gave girls no traditional rights to succession†¦ encouraged preference to be given to the education of a boy rather than of a girl. These small-scale investigations are recent efforts towards a better understanding of gender differentials in mathematics from an African perspective.